Chivalry as the Governing Concept of Courtly Life

When one speaks of knights and nobility during the Middle Ages the thought that would immediately come to mind is their battles and conquests. However, knights are merely a facet of what is known as the court culture during medieval times. The conquests that most people associate with them are merely a small aspect of their life and the people that comprise medieval societies especially those in the royal courts like noblemen and noblewomen. There were also a great number of intricacies that comprise court culture, or the way noblemen and noblewomen were supposed to act in certain situations. It can be said that despite the romanticism associated with the literature of the era, it is chivalric ideals that define court culture.

Being a knight meant that one was part of a royal court. It forms a unique culture that dictates how the men and women who comprise the court would treat each other and react in certain situations. Knights, for example, would have to follow what is known as the chivalric code. The word chivalry itself is derived from the French word cheval, which means horse. In essence, this would refer to a code of conduct that is followed by horsemen, which knights essentially were (BoiseState 2014). This concept is what defined the model knightly behavior during the 12^th and 13^th centuries. Chivalry can be defined as the way a knight constantly pursues the ideal of keeping his promises and showing his loyalty to his liege as well as to God. As well as the idea that he is supposed to honor and obey his lord to whom he owes his allegiances.

To a certain extent the concept also encompasses the performing feats of skill and bravery. An example of this would be that of Sir Gawain who took up the challenge of the Green Knight (Greenblatt, S. & Abrams, M.H. eds 2006). This shows his extreme devotion and loyalty to his uncle King Arthur.  Aside from the worldly aspect of chivalry, equally important is the concept of incorporating religion by honoring God in their desire to be good Christians. This concept is equally important because religion played an important part of lives of noblemen and noblewomen. In hindsight, Sir Gawain in the story provides us the perfect conjunction of the aspects set forth in the chivalric code (Greenblatt, S. & Abrams, M.H. eds 2006). In essence these are knightly virtues, Christian ideals and courtly love.

Gradually, the concept would evolve to include virtuous ideals such as honor, courtesy and courtly love. If one were to look at the concept, it would be quite similar to the concept of being a gentleman in later times. However, it is much deeper because chivalry literally governed the daily lives of noblemen and noblewomen, and not just knights. It can be said that breaking away from or not following the prescribed manners set forth by chivalry would be the worst crimes that they could commit. As a nobleman or noblewoman, one should display honor and courtesy (BoiseState 2014). Being crass or displaying brutish behavior was frowned upon. It would be safe to say that any display of unrefined manners would not only raise eyebrows but also result in being ridiculed and repudiated by other noblemen and noble women. Breaking the oath of loyalty to God and one’s liege is also considered a crime. Among noblewomen, showing impropriety would also be considered a grave offense.          

The relationships and most importantly the hierarchy that were formed during medieval times were also quite peculiar because they were so strongly ingrained in court life that they literally governed the way noblemen and noblewomen acted. A knight is typically a soldier who owes allegiance to two masters. One is the God and the other is his Lord to whom they owe their loyalty (Greenblatt, S. & Abrams, M.H. eds 2006). The Lord or royal would provide whatever the knight requires and in return, the knight is at the beck and call of their Lord. It should be noted that, in a way, the relationship is mutual because both sides benefit from the arrangement. An example of this would be Sir Gawain, who perceiving the King Arthur’s honor was being trampled upon by the Green Knight said “I beseech, before all here, That this melee may be mine”. (Greenblatt, S. & Abrams, M.H. eds 2006). The concept of loyalty is also quite important in courtly life because as previously mentioned a knight owes his allegiance to his king or his liege. In times wherein there would be a dilemma, loyalty towards his Lord would be the prime motivating factor in the decision making of a knight. This would often be problematic because it would put the knight in situations where in their lives would be endangered. However, such as was part of the life of the knight who swore loyalty to his lord.

The relationship between the Knight and a lady, on the other hand, is also unique, because they are also governed a strict set of rules that dictated the way they interacted. A knight is supposed to show utmost respect. They are also supposed to be able to carry a good conversation and show perfect manners. Ladies were literally held up high on a pedestal, and that any disrespect shown to them by knights or any other man for that matter could result in besmirching their honor. Ladies would interact with knights in a way that they would befit the honor and adoration that they are given (BoiseState 2014). Doing otherwise would result in awkward situations. It should be stressed that Ladies were held to a high regard knights who admired them.  The knights’ interactions with them should always be bereft of any sexual connotations (Greenblatt, S. & Abrams, M.H. eds 2006). Knights and Ladies would often interact in a civilized and genteel manner.

A concept that almost always accompanies romantic tales of knights is that of the quest. The knightly quest or errand is often characterized by a seemingly insurmountable task that a knight must undertake. An example of this would be the quest for the Holy Grail (Greenblatt, S. & Abrams, M.H. eds 2006). This is perhaps one of the most popular quests that are known by many. Another is that of the quest of Sir Gawain to fulfill his promise to the Green Knight to return the favor when he chopped off the head of the said knight (Greenblatt, S. & Abrams, M.H. eds 2006). Although this might seem ludicrous to some but in reality this is another way of showing loyalty one’s Lord. There is a spiritual aspect to the quest because it shows the faith of a knight in God’s divine providence. It is also a display a knight’s loyalty, honor, and prowess. Shirking from embarking on their quest would mean that the knight was a lesser man, one who is not fit to labor under the name of his lord and most importantly, God.

Conclusion

Courtly life during medieval times is somewhat an arcane concept to many because it entails utmost allegiance to following the chivalric code. However, once chivalry is understood, all the romance stories that came from that era are easily understood. Chivalry is a concept wherein Christian ideals, knightly virtues and courtly love intersect and govern the way noblemen and noblewomen acted. It is a concept that literally defined the actions, thoughts and ideals of people who lived during that era. It is also the wellspring where romance tales drew from. A knight acted in such a way that they displayed chivalry not because it is who they are but because it is what defines them. It was not a prescribed set of rules, it was a way of life.

References

Greenblatt, S. & Abrams, M.H. eds (2006)  The Norton Anthology of English Literature, 8th Edition, Volume 1

BoiseState (2014) Medieval Society (http://europeanhistory.boisestate.edu/westciv/medsoc/11.shtml)

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The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944

            Henry Rousso’s book entitled ‘The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944” considers a rather different way of understanding the historical developments that happened in the country in the aftermath of World War II. Setting his focus in the Vichy period, Rousso tries to reconstruct his framework that the existence of repressed memories have influenced the way French people think about the realities that are happening to the events moving forward. To better place emphasis on his arguments, he divides the book into three different sections, where he believes that this repressed memories have been manifested.  These include the period immediately after the conflict, the period where Charles de Gaulle held power and the student demonstrations that occurred in the 1960s.

            Looking closely at the period immediately after the war, Rousso points out that the repression happened in this stage. He specifically cites the condition where people had limited time to react to what was happening. Alongside this was the attributed impact in the rebuilding process associated with the end of World War II. From the vantage point of Rousso, the leadership during the period repressed the actual impact to French society because it somewhat created a false impression of liberation. Citing Rousso, he mentioned that:

“The purge thus made everybody unhappy, because it had proved impossible to strike a satisfactory compromise between traditional justice, which as what most moderates (as well as those with most to lose politically) were calling for, and the need to rout out fascism. The dilemma was not merely moral: the law versus legitimate revenge, short-term memory versus persistent bitterness” (22).

Equally, the issue related to how the French people responded to the war immediately after its aftermath. Initially, there was clamor to memorializing what happened but this was somewhat constrained due to the necessary process of rebuilding. The end result created division on the perspective towards liberation, where each one featured a specific ideology of what really happened during the time frame. Citing Rousso, he mentions that:

“The Liberation thus represents an intermediate stage between the Occupation and the memory of the event. It contains in embryonic form the chief characteristics of the Vichy syndrome, which took the guise of ambivalences and rivalries” (26).

            The next argument then revolves around the times after liberation. This is the period when Charles de Gaulle was in power and how he tried to convey a sense of justice to what has transpired to people who have experienced the atrocities and destruction brought forth by war. Using different examples of propaganda, there was the recognition of how the French society, especially those who were born after the war to examine the realities that happened during the period.

            The period of the 1960s, also created the necessary stir in understanding the memories during the occupation. This clearly came during the time when leftist movements were becoming evident within French society. Equally, the introduction of new literature (e.g. films and documentaries opened the direction for recognizing the role of the local people during the conflict. In a way, this is referred to by Rousso as ‘areas of amnesia’ where it helped the development of groups and establish better recognition of the histories that are happening around. 

            The last sections of the book, Rousso then highlights the different vectors of memory shape perceptions related to War and Occupation. To achieve this, the book considered the statistical figures detailing how the French were familiar about the subject. The results he provided illustrate the lack of understanding or ignorance in the nature of changes that have happened in the past and the corresponding consciousness for such.  

            Considering the relevance and value of the book, as far as the thesis is concerned, Rousso was able to explore the different dimensions of this theory. The thing that is commendable about the book is its ability to separate its arguments into different sections. These are points where Rousso believes that the issue related to repressed experiences and memories come into place. Having this vantage point increases the potential of readers to bring forward connections to the case/situations he has pointed out. Equally, the ability to utilize historical events that have happened in the past also create justifications for Rousso’s arguments. Bearing in mind some significant events that shaped French history after World War II, the central themes offer ways to piece the information together and provide analyses that is derived from how memories might have contributed to either the creation of perspective or opinion about the issue. 

            Assessing the functional purpose of the book, the insights provide new perspectives about understanding the history of France from the Vichy until today. The framework utilizes a new direction to consider the repercussions of the incident and how it influenced the manner that French society reinterprets the specific condition over contemporary issues. In support of Rousso’s arguments, there clearly are psychological and behavioral manifestations that can illustrate his point. Using historical facts, he is able to examine clearly French society as it progressed in the aftermath of World War II. His depiction of how influences in the realm of politics and society does hold ground particularly if one seeks to understand the motivations that influenced the people to act in the specific period. These can be attributed to the repressions and the collective representations that in turn shape attitudes and behavior amongst critical issues involving the nation.

            On the other hand, operating solely on the realm of psychology and behavior also undermines the level of analysis concerning the history of France since Post World War II. Even if Rousso might have a good perspective and historical basis for his claims, the concept of objectivity and the ability to operate on the context of the situation loses because the book contends pointing the traumatizing experience of Vichy as the only facet that prompted such response. In addition, the level of analysis applied by Rousso can also be subject to criticism. Like those who operate from the viewpoint of resistance movement or communism, there are numerous ways to look into the role of history. Given the subjectivity of attributing factors related to each situation after Vichy, it might present limitations especially in helping understand historical information that contradicts Rousso’s chosen framework.

            In conclusion, Rousso’s book remains to be a good approach to understand French history since the Vichy period. It’s ability to look into psychological and behavioral approaches encourages readers to take consider the connection of things and identify the manner how memories of the situations in the past continue to shape and influence the way people perceive societal and political issues in France. In addition, operating on this lens encourages readers to step back in considering the nature of history and how the level of consciousness can be attributed the manner that memories and past can go together and establish a level of commitment towards achieving an opinion over a specific issue.

Work Cited

Rousso, Henry. The Vichy syndrome: history and memory in France since 1944. 1994 trans.

Arthur Goldhammer. Harvard University Press: Massachusetts. Print 

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History of British India

            The term ‘communalism’ comes from the term community.  Relating this to the history of British India, it is considered to be an ideology wherein specific preference is given to connections and affiliations with the social structure (caste system) and religious beliefs (Hinduism and Islam) (Simeon 1). Through the interaction of the community, it became the necessary norms and influenced how decisions are administered and political structures are specifically created. These clashes of political ideals that are influenced by both religious and cultural practices opens up ways to understand India’s history and the expansion of political ideals. 

            Operating on the British perspective, they specifically see the development of ‘communalism’ as backward and primitive. This means that the values that the ideology promotes resembles the time when they first colonized the country. Its people remain to be divided into specific classes (castes) and had to fulfill some roles and functions. The actions engaged in this belief remain to be religiously motivated and influenced by irrational viewpoints. This equally was an issue as the British sought to promote its Western views which focus on economic development, rationality and liberal in nature.

            Considering the work of Gyanendra Pandey, he specifically outlines the different patterns within India’s history that shaped the development of communalism as a concept. Looking closely, each chapter was relevant in helping readers understand the religious, cultural and social context of identity development. In addition, there is of course, the influences of colonization and how the British occupation influenced the development of democratic and modern ideals particularly in creating an identity as ‘Hindu’.

            Looking closely, one of the principal features of colonial construction of communalism comes from the historical development of communities within India.  Several chapters of Pandey’s book examines these connections and how it has shaped the perspective of varying communities that have come to live together during the colonial occupation. Arguably, it allows reader to familiarize that the context of community differences exercising different roles through the caste system and religious ideals (Hindu and Muslim) (Pandey 32).

            Another important attribute that Pandey uses to relate the development of ‘communalism’ is violence and riots that occurred between Muslim and Hindu groups. The different examples in the book seek to show the existence of fighting between communities that are influenced by differing religious, cultural and traditional practices. Likewise, these actions illustrate a depiction of history that is characterized to be irrational, violent and only pursues individual interests. For Pandey, it became the basis for colonial perspective in understanding how communalism came to happen in India’s society.

            Lastly, there is the religious connection as to how the concept of ‘communalism’ was conceptualized. Given the continued culture of the caste, its interaction with religion provided the creation of different identities. Instead of having a consciousness that is ‘Hindu’ or ‘India’, the group separated into communities and factions that relates to their religious beliefs. These conflicting viewpoints promoted by the caste and religious views shaped the manner that ‘communalism’ was created.

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Works Cited

Pandey, Gyanendra. The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India, Third Edition.

2012. Oxford University Press; United States.

Simeon, Dilip. ‘India: What is Communalism?’ SACW.net 10 Nov. 1986 Web Available from

<http://www.sacw.net/article6174.html>